We are told—so often it passes without question—that capitalism and democracy belong together, as if the two had grown up side by side and simply learned to share the same political household. Free markets, free individuals, free societies: the phrases fall into place with such ease that they begin to sound less like claims than descriptions of how things already are, as though no further justification were required and none could meaningfully be given.
What gives this arrangement its staying power is not merely repetition, but the way it organizes political perception in advance of thought. Democracy is treated as something finished, a settled architecture of institutions and rights that stands apart from the economic life in which it is embedded. Capitalism, in turn, is treated as a separate domain altogether, governed by its own necessities but presumed compatible with democratic rule so long as elections are held and formal liberties remain intact.
But the moment one stops taking this division for granted, its stability begins to weaken. Democracy, in its liberal form, is usually defined as a system in which political authority derives from the people through representation and periodic elections.1 Yet even this definition, precise as it appears, already narrows the field of vision. It tells us how authority is authorized, but not where authority actually operates; it specifies the mechanism of consent, while leaving open the question of what domains of life are subject to it in the first place.
There is, of course, genuine participation in liberal societies. People vote, speak, organize, and under certain conditions exert real pressure on public outcomes. But most of social life unfolds beyond this horizon. The workplace, production, investment, and distribution are structured through systems of command that do not rest on collective deliberation. And so what we encounter is not the absence of democracy, but its careful confinement: a form of political equality that exists, but only within a bounded institutional space.
It is precisely this confinement that tends to disappear from view, because it is so often translated into a simple distinction between “politics” and “the economy,” as though these referred to different kinds of activity rather than different ways of organizing power. To see how deeply this separation is embedded, it is necessary to return to the theoretical framework that makes it appear self-evident in the first place: the tradition of social contract theory.
Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau each begin from the claim that political authority is legitimate because it rests on consent, that the governed in some sense authorize the structures that govern them.2 It is an elegant idea, and in its abstraction it carries a certain persuasive force, but it depends on a prior assumption that is rarely examined closely: that individuals enter agreements as relatively independent and comparably situated actors, able to choose among real alternatives without structural coercion determining the outcome in advance. The “state of nature” is the device through which this assumption is staged, a conceptual space in which social relations appear to emerge from voluntary agreement rather than inherited necessity.
Placed alongside the actual structure of capitalist social relations, however, this assumption begins to unravel. Economic life is formally organized through contracts between individuals, yet access to the means of survival is distributed in such a way that participation is not genuinely optional. The worker does not enter the labor contract as a free-standing agent selecting among equivalent possibilities, but as someone compelled by circumstance to secure the conditions of life itself. The form of agreement remains intact, but the symmetry that would give it its intuitive moral force is missing.
This is the point at which Marx’s analysis becomes decisive, not because it denies the reality of exchange, but because it situates exchange within a structure that shapes its meaning from the outset. Formal equality in the contract does not eliminate material inequality in the conditions under which contracts are made. One party can refuse and wait; the other cannot. And so what appears as free agreement increasingly reveals itself as necessity expressed in legal form.3
At that point, consent begins to lose its explanatory innocence. It continues to function as a juridical category, but it no longer succeeds as a general account of how social relations are formed or sustained. Agreement persists, but it does so within a field of constraint that precedes it and quietly determines its outcomes.
Later critiques extend this logic by showing that the universal language of contract has always depended on exclusions that are not accidental but constitutive. Carole Pateman demonstrates that the classical contract tradition rests on a “sexual contract,” in which formal equality among men is secured alongside structured domination over women.4 Charles Mills develops a parallel argument in relation to race, identifying a “racial contract” in which liberal universalism coexists with, and is stabilized by, racial hierarchy.5 What presents itself as universal equality is therefore not the negation of domination but its reorganization into forms that remain compatible with the language of universality itself.
What emerges from this is not the disappearance of the social contract tradition, but its transformation into something narrower and more ideological, a framework that presupposes the very conditions it claims to explain. Consent remains central, but increasingly as an abstraction that legitimates outcomes rather than a description of genuinely symmetrical relations.
Rousseau, more than many in this tradition, gestures toward the tension that lies beneath it. When he writes that the people, being subject to the laws, ought also to be their authors,6 he shifts the emphasis away from consent as such and toward something more demanding—not merely agreement with existing arrangements, but collective control over the conditions in which those arrangements are formed.
Taken seriously, this shift alters the way the boundary between political and economic life appears. Modern societies distribute authorship unevenly across these domains. Political life, for all its limitations, allows for forms of participation that are real even if constrained. Economic life, by contrast, is structured in such a way that decisions about production, distribution, and organization are largely removed from collective control. The result is a peculiar dual structure: political equality at the level of formal representation, and hierarchical authority at the level of material life.
The workplace makes this especially visible once one looks at it without inherited categories. It is a system of governance in every meaningful sense: instructions are issued, compliance is expected, and noncompliance carries consequences. Yet it is not treated as a political institution at all. It is described instead in managerial or technical terms, as though the exercise of authority within it were something other than rule.7
This same structure extends outward into the functioning of the state. Political authority is formally exercised through democratic mechanisms, yet the space in which that authority operates is shaped in advance by economic dependencies—investment flows, credit conditions, and the requirements of market stability. The state does not stand above these forces; it moves within them, and its range of action is structured accordingly.
Lenin’s formulation captures this relation in its starkest form when he writes that the state is a product of class antagonisms.8 The point is not that the state is a mere instrument, but that it is structured by the conflicts it manages. Later theoretical work, including Poulantzas’s analysis of the capitalist state, develops this insight further by showing how state structures are internally shaped by the requirements of capital reproduction rather than standing outside them.9
What follows from this is a pattern that becomes difficult to ignore once it is seen clearly. Democracy exists, but it exists within limits that are not incidental. It operates in one domain while leaving another, one that shapes everyday life far more directly, largely outside its reach.
From here, the question begins to shift its shape. If democracy is understood narrowly as participation within pre-established institutions, then the existing arrangement can be described as its fulfillment. But if democracy is understood more fully as collective control over the conditions that structure social life, then the present form appears not as completion but as restriction.
On that second understanding, socialism does not enter as an external alternative to democracy, but as an extension of its central principle. It pushes the logic of collective authorship into the domain where it has historically been most restricted: production, distribution, and economic coordination. The question is no longer ownership in the abstract, but where decision-making power actually resides, and under what conditions it is exercised. This does not imply the disappearance of coordination or structure. It implies a reorganization of authority itself, such that those affected by decisions are no longer systematically excluded from making them.
Rosa Luxemburg’s warning remains essential here, precisely because it resists any illusion that transformation alone is sufficient. Without participation, she suggests, socialism collapses into administration, losing the very democratic content that would justify it in the first place.10 Formal change without lived control reproduces the separation it claims to overcome.
The tension, then, is not incidental but structural. Capitalism concentrates economic power, while liberal democracy disperses political authority. These two logics coexist within the same social order, but they do not resolve into one another.
The more precise question, therefore, is not whether socialism is compatible with democracy as it currently exists, but whether democracy—understood as meaningful collective self-rule—can persist in a form that excludes large domains of social life from collective control.
Marx situates this question within a broader historical movement in which social forms are never fixed but continually produced and contested through struggle.11 Democracy, in this sense, is not an endpoint but a terrain of conflict, and its meaning is inseparable from the forces that shape its development.
What remains, then, is not a theoretical resolution but a practical one: the question of how far democratic control can be extended into the organization of social life itself, and what forms of struggle, institution, and collective practice would be required to make that extension real.
Robert A. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 37–38.
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 120; John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (1689; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 330; Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762; Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987), 49.
Karl Marx, Capital: Volume I (1867; London: Penguin, 1976), 344–345.
Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 2–3.
Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 11–12.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 54.
Elizabeth Anderson, Private Government: How Employers Rule Our Lives (and Why We Don’t Talk about It) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 3–5.
Vladimir Lenin, State and Revolution (1917; Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1970), 10.
Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978), 128–130.
Rosa Luxemburg, The Russian Revolution (1918; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), 69.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848; London: Penguin, 2002), 219.
The connection with supposed “freedoms” is important. As in the way Marx uses “free” when describing wage-workers, we’re “free” in a similar way when it comes to the broader political economy.
Representative democracy is neither a natural nor a final expression of popular self-government. Rather, it emerged historically as a compromise form shaped by the material and technical limitations of its time.
Before the advent of high-speed communication, digital platforms, and tools for instantaneous coordination, broad-based participation in continuous decision-making was practically impossible. Political space was fragmented by distance, the time required to gather and process information was measured in days and weeks, and the organizational costs of direct participation made it unfeasible at the scale of complex societies. Under such conditions, delegation of authority was not so much a choice as a necessity.
Representation thus functioned as a technological and organizational surrogate for direct democracy—a way to compensate for the impossibility of constant and universal participation. It allowed for the maintenance of popular sovereignty in form where its direct realization was out of reach.
However, as material conditions change, so too does the structure of what is possible. Contemporary communication technologies radically reduce the costs of coordination, while digital platforms open up spaces for ongoing participation beyond periodic elections. Moreover, the development of information-processing tools, including neural network systems, makes manageable volumes of data and levels of complexity that previously required centralized mediation.
This does not mean that the problem of democracy has been automatically resolved. On the contrary, a new problem emerges: how to institutionalize these technical capacities in ways that do not reproduce older forms of alienation in a new guise.
In any case, representative democracy increasingly ceases to appear as a limit. It reveals itself more clearly as a historically transient form—one tied to a particular level of development of productive forces and communication technologies.
If this is accepted, the question of democracy shifts. It is no longer primarily about how to refine representation, but about the extent to which contemporary societies can move from delegation to direct participation—and which social forces are interested in advancing or preventing that transition.
I have a short essay about this problem here:
https://servusprotervus.substack.com/p/representative-democracy-as-a-temporary?utm_source=share&utm_medium=android&r=78zzk7